The Age of Industrialisation: Class 10 History Chapter 4

Before the Factories: The World of Proto-Industrialisation

Even before factories began to appear in England, there was large-scale industrial production for an international market. This period is known as proto-industrialisation (proto means 'first' or 'early form of'). So, how did it work? In the 17th and 18th centuries, merchants from towns in Europe moved to the countryside, supplying money to peasants and artisans, and asking them to produce goods. They wanted to bypass the powerful urban craft and trade guilds, which controlled production, prices, and entry of new people into the trade. In the countryside, poor peasants and artisans who had small plots of land found this work to be a welcome source of supplementary income. This system was a vast network: a merchant clothier in England would purchase wool from a wool stapler, carry it to the spinners, then the yarn was taken to weavers, fullers, and finally to dyers. The finishing was done in London before the export merchant sold the cloth in the international market. This entire process was controlled by merchants, but the production was done by families in their homes, not in factories.

The Coming Up of the Factory: A New System of Production

1. Step 1: Invention and New Technology — A series of inventions in the 18th century, like the spinning jenny, water frame, and steam engine, increased the efficiency of each step of the production process (carding, twisting, spinning, and rolling). Richard Arkwright's creation of the cotton mill was a turning point.
2. Step 2: Centralisation under One Roof — The new, expensive machines could be installed and maintained in a central location—a mill or factory. For the first time, all the different stages of production were brought together under one roof and management.
3. Step 3: Supervision and Quality Control — This new factory system allowed for careful supervision over the production process. A manager could watch over workers, regulate their labour, and ensure a certain quality and standard for the products, which was difficult to do when production was happening in different households in the countryside.
4. Step 4: Mass Production and a New Landscape — The combination of machines and organised labour led to a massive increase in output per worker. This enabled a previously unimaginable scale of production. The skyline of cities like Manchester began to be dominated by the tall chimneys of new cotton mills, symbolising this new industrial age.

Industrialisation in the Colonies: The Case of India

India's experience with industrialisation was shaped by its status as a British colony. Before the British conquest, Indian silk and cotton goods dominated the international market. However, the industrial revolution in England reversed this relationship. Manchester-made machine goods flooded Indian markets, creating stiff competition for Indian weavers. Tariffs were manipulated to favour British imports, leading to the decline of India's textile exports. The first Indian cotton mill was set up in Bombay in 1854, followed by jute mills in Bengal. Early Indian entrepreneurs like Dwarkanath Tagore, Dinshaw Petit, and Jamsetji Nusserwanji Tata built huge industrial empires. However, they faced many constraints. They were barred from trading in manufactured goods with Europe and had to primarily export raw materials. They also struggled to compete with British-controlled European Managing Agencies, which had privileged access to capital and resources.

Exam Tips: Scoring High on This Chapter

In your exams, questions from 'The Age of Industrialisation' often test your ability to analyse causes and effects.

• For 'impact' questions: Always discuss both positive and negative effects. For instance, the impact of industrialisation on workers involved new job opportunities but also terrible working conditions and low wages.
• Use Specific Examples: Don't just say 'new machines were invented.' Name them! Mention the 'Spinning Jenny' and the fear it caused, or 'Manchester imports' and their effect on Indian weavers. Specifics make your answer stronger.
• Compare and Contrast: Be prepared to compare proto-industrialisation with the factory system, or the condition of weavers in India before and after the arrival of the British. Using a table format in your rough work can help you structure these answers clearly.

Practice Questions with Solutions

• Q: Explain what is meant by proto-industrialisation. A: Step 1: Define Proto-industrialisation. Proto-industrialisation refers to the phase of large-scale industrial production for an international market that existed before the establishment of modern factories. 'Proto' signifies that it was the first or early form of industrialisation. Step 2: Describe the system. It was a decentralised system of production. Merchants from towns would provide raw materials and money to artisans and peasants in the countryside. The production, such as spinning yarn or weaving cloth, was carried out by families in their homes. Step 3: Explain the role of merchants and the market. The merchants controlled the entire system, from providing inputs to collecting the finished goods. The finished products were not for local consumption but were sold in international markets. This system allowed merchants to bypass the restrictive urban trade guilds. Final answer: Proto-industrialisation was a pre-factory system of large-scale production for the global market, where urban merchants outsourced production to rural artisans and peasants who worked from their homes.
• Q: Why did some industrialists in nineteenth-century Europe prefer hand labour over machines? A: Step 1: Mention the abundance of labour. In Victorian Britain, there was no shortage of human labour. Poor peasants and vagrants moved to the cities in large numbers looking for jobs, so wages were low. Industrialists had no incentive to invest in expensive machines when cheap labour was readily available. Step 2: Discuss the issue with machines. Machines were costly, and their repair was also a significant expense. They were not always as effective as their inventors claimed. For example, the steam engine was not widely adopted for many years. Step 3: Explain the demand for specific goods. In many industries, the demand for labour was seasonal, such as in gas works and breweries. In such cases, it was more economical to employ more workers for the season than to invest in machines. Also, a range of products could only be produced with hand labour, especially goods with intricate designs or specific shapes. The upper classes preferred expensive, handmade goods as a symbol of class and refinement. Final answer: Industrialists preferred hand labour due to the abundance of cheap workers, the high cost and maintenance of machines, the seasonal nature of work in many industries, and the demand for varied, non-standardised goods that could only be made by hand.
• Q: Explain the main problems faced by Indian weavers in the nineteenth century. A: Step 1: Collapse of the export market. The primary problem was the collapse of their export market. As cotton industries developed in England, industrial groups pressured the government to impose import duties on Indian textiles so that Manchester goods could sell in Britain without competition. Step 2: Flooding of the domestic market. The Indian market was flooded with cheap, machine-made textiles from Manchester. These imports were so cheap that Indian weavers could not easily compete with them. By the 1860s, weavers faced a new problem: they could not get a sufficient supply of good quality raw cotton, as much of it was being exported to Britain. Step 3: Loss of status and livelihood. Faced with declining markets and cheap imports, weaving communities were devastated. Many weavers became agricultural labourers, while some migrated to cities in search of work in the new factories. They lost their livelihood and social standing. Final answer: Indian weavers in the 19th century faced problems like the collapse of their export market due to British policies, stiff competition from cheap machine-made imports from Manchester, and a shortage of good quality raw cotton, all of which led to their economic ruin.
• Q: What was the role of the 'Jobber' in the early Indian factories? A: Step 1: Define the Jobber. The Jobber was an old and trusted worker employed by Indian industrialists. His primary role was to recruit new workers for the mills. Step 2: Explain their functions. Since he usually came from the same village as the workers, he would get people from his village, ensure them jobs, help them settle in the city, and provide money in times of crisis. His functions were a mix of a foreman and a community leader. Step 3: Discuss their power and authority. The Jobber became a person with significant authority and power. He began demanding money and gifts for his favour and controlling the lives of workers. This gave him a powerful position within the factory structure. Final answer: The Jobber was a key figure in early Indian factories, responsible for recruiting labour from villages. He also acted as a community leader for the migrants but often misused his power by demanding favours and controlling the workers' lives.

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