New Kings and Kingdoms: Class 7 History Chapter 2 NCERT

The Emergence of New Dynasties

Around the 7th century, many powerful landlords and warrior chiefs, known as samantas, emerged across India. Existing kings often acknowledged them as their subordinates. These samantas were expected to bring gifts for their kings, be present at their courts, and provide them with military support. As they gained more power and wealth, they started calling themselves maha-samanta or maha-mandaleshvara (the great lord of a circle or region). Sometimes, they grew so powerful that they asserted their independence from their overlords. A great example of this is the rise of the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan. Initially, they were subordinate to the Chalukyas of Karnataka. In the mid-eighth century, a Rashtrakuta chief named Dantidurga overthrew his Chalukya king and performed a ritual called hiranya-garbha (literally, the golden womb). When this ritual was performed with the help of Brahmanas, it was thought to lead to the "rebirth" of the sacrificer as a Kshatriya, even if he was not one by birth, thus legitimizing his rule.

How Kingdoms Were Administered

1. Step 1: Titles and Power Sharing — To show their power, many new kings adopted grand titles like Maharaja-adhiraja (great king, overlord of kings) and Tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the three worlds). However, despite these claims, they often shared power with their samantas, as well as with associations of peasants (called ur), traders (called nagaram), and influential Brahmanas.
2. Step 2: Collecting Resources and Taxes — The kingdom's finances depended on resources from producers. Peasants, cattle-keepers, and artisans were the primary source. They were often persuaded or compelled to give up a part of what they produced as 'tax' or 'rent'. For example, the Cholas had inscriptions that refer to more than 400 different types of taxes! The most frequent was vetti (forced labour) and kadamai (land revenue). Revenue was also collected from traders.
3. Step 3: Using the Revenue — The money collected was used for several purposes. It financed the king's establishment, paid for the army, and funded the construction of magnificent temples and forts. This revenue was also crucial for fighting wars. Wars were fought for wealth (in the form of plunder) and for control over land and important trade routes, which in turn brought more revenue.

Prashastis and Land Grants: Recording History

• What are Prashastis? Prashastis were special inscriptions composed by learned Brahmanas that praised the rulers in great detail. They often depicted kings as valiant, victorious warriors. While they may not be entirely factual, they are valuable because they tell us how rulers wanted to be seen by their subjects. For instance, a prashasti found in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, describes the achievements of Nagabhata, a Pratihara king.
• Land Grants (Brahmadeya): Kings frequently rewarded Brahmanas by granting them land. These grants were recorded on copper plates, which served as a legal document for the recipient. These lands were often tax-free and the Brahmanas could collect revenue from them. This was a way for kings to gain support from the influential Brahmana community.
• An example from the Cholas: The Chola inscriptions provide detailed accounts of these land grants. An unusual 12th-century Sanskrit text attached to a South Indian grant describes everything that came with the land: fruit-bearing trees, gardens, forests, rivers, canals, pastures, and even the right to build large houses and collect taxes on various goods. This shows how comprehensive these grants were.

Key Concept: The Tripartite Struggle

• The Prize City: The city of Kanauj, located in the fertile Ganga valley, was a symbol of power and a center for trade. Controlling Kanauj meant controlling immense wealth and resources.
• The Three Contenders: Three powerful dynasties of the time fought fiercely to control Kanauj. These were the Gurjara-Pratiharas (based in western India), the Rashtrakutas (based in the Deccan), and the Palas (based in Bengal).
• Why 'Tripartite'? Since three major powers were locked in this long-drawn conflict for centuries, historians have named it the 'tripartite struggle' ('tripartite' means involving three parties).
• Long-Term Impact: This continuous warfare over many generations significantly weakened all three dynasties. Their resources were drained, which ultimately led to their decline and allowed smaller regional kingdoms to rise in their place.

Practice Questions with Solutions

• Q: Who were the parties involved in the “tripartite struggle” and why did they fight? A: Step 1: Identify the parties involved. The three parties involved in the long-drawn conflict were the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty, the Rashtrakuta dynasty, and the Pala dynasty. Step 2: Explain the reason for the conflict. These three powerful dynasties fought for control over the city of Kanauj. Step 3: Detail why Kanauj was important. Kanauj was a prized area in the Ganga valley. Controlling it meant controlling the vast resources of the fertile plains and important trade routes, which would bring immense wealth and prestige. Final answer: The Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, and Palas were the three parties involved in the 'tripartite struggle'. They fought for control over the strategically and economically important city of Kanauj in the Ganga valley.
• Q: What were the qualifications necessary to become a member of a committee of the sabha in the Chola empire? A: Step 1: Recall the source of information. The qualifications are detailed in the inscriptions from Uttaramerur in Tamil Nadu. Step 2: List the main qualifications. To be a member of the sabha, a person needed to: - Be a landowner from whom land revenue was collected. - Have their own home. - Be between 35 and 70 years of age. - Have knowledge of the Vedas. - Be well-versed in administrative matters and be honest. Step 3: Mention the disqualification criteria. A person could not become a member if they had been a member of any committee in the last three years. Also, anyone who had not submitted their accounts (and their relatives) could not contest. Final answer: To be a member of a Chola sabha committee, one had to be a land-owning homeowner between 35-70 years old, with knowledge of the Vedas and administration. They could not have served on a committee in the previous three years.
• Q: Explain the process by which new dynasties emerged in the medieval period. A: Step 1: Identify the starting point. New dynasties emerged from powerful local chiefs or subordinates called 'samantas'. Step 2: Describe how they gained power. Samantas were initially subordinates to existing kings. As they gained wealth and military power, they took on grand titles like 'maha-samanta'. They gradually grew more powerful than their overlords. Step 3: Explain the final step to independence. Eventually, a powerful samanta would declare independence from their king. They would often perform religious rituals, like the 'hiranya-garbha', with the help of Brahmanas to legitimize their new status as independent rulers and establish a new dynasty. Final answer: New dynasties emerged when subordinate chiefs, or 'samantas', gained significant power and wealth. They then asserted their independence from their kings, often performing rituals like the 'hiranya-garbha' to gain legitimacy as Kshatriya rulers, and established their own kingdoms.
• Q: What were 'prashastis' and what kind of information do they provide? A: Step 1: Define 'prashastis'. Prashastis were special inscriptions, usually composed in Sanskrit by learned Brahmanas, that contained praise for the ruling king. Step 2: Describe the content of prashastis. They typically depicted the ruler as a great achiever, a valiant warrior, and a victorious hero. They would list the king's victories in battle and his virtuous qualities. Step 3: Explain their historical value and limitations. While the details might not be literally true (as they were meant to glorify the king), prashastis are valuable to historians. They tell us how rulers wanted to be perceived and what qualities were considered important for a king during that period. They provide information on the king's lineage, military campaigns, and patronage. Final answer: 'Prashastis' were inscriptions of praise for kings, composed by Brahmanas. They provide information about how rulers wanted to be seen—as powerful, victorious, and virtuous. While not always factually accurate, they give historians insight into the ideals of kingship and the events the rulers considered important.

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