Working of Institutions Class 9 NCERT — CBSE Political Science Chapter 4

Why Do We Need Institutions?

A country needs rules and mechanisms to take decisions, and it needs these decisions to be implemented. Institutions provide a mechanism to routinise decision-making so we don't depend on the wishes of one particular ruler or leader. For example, the Kargil–Leh road story shows that even though the Prime Minister wanted quick action, the decision had to pass through the Finance Ministry, Planning Commission, and other bodies — a slow but democratic process that prevents arbitrary decisions.

Institutions bring three benefits: they reduce the scope for arbitrary decision-making by a single person; they help implement decisions that serve the interest of all rather than only those in power; and they provide a mechanism to accommodate conflicting interests of different groups through discussion and negotiation rather than force. This is why democracies rely heavily on strong, well-functioning institutions like Parliament, the Executive, and Judiciary.

Parliament — Structure and Functions

Parliament

The national legislature of India, consisting of the President, the Lok Sabha (House of the People), and the Rajya Sabha (Council of States).

Lok Sabha

Directly elected by the people; members hold office for 5 years; has more power than Rajya Sabha, especially in money matters and can remove the government via no-confidence motion.

Rajya Sabha

Members elected indirectly by state legislative assemblies; acts as the Council of States representing states of the Indian Union; cannot be dissolved (a permanent body, one-third members retire every two years).

Functions of Parliament

To make laws, control government finances (approve budget), control and give direction to government policies, discuss issues of public concern, and elect/remove the government through votes of confidence/no-confidence.

Political vs Permanent Executive: PM, Council of Ministers, President

The government has two components: the Political Executive, made up of elected leaders who take major decisions (Prime Minister, Cabinet Ministers), and the Permanent Executive or civil services, who are appointed officials that carry out day-to-day administration and remain in service regardless of which party is in power.

The Prime Minister is the head of government and the most powerful functionary — chairs Cabinet meetings, coordinates the work of different departments, allocates work to ministers, supervises implementation of policies, and takes major decisions in consultation with the Cabinet. In contrast, the President is the nominal Head of State — a formal head who exercises power on the advice of the Council of Ministers headed by the PM. All major decisions like appointment of the PM, declaration of war, and dismissal of the government are formally made in the President's name, but they are actually taken by the political executive.

Under Article 75, the President appoints the PM, and other ministers are appointed on the PM's advice. This is a key distinction tested often: real power lies with the PM/Council of Ministers, while the President's role is largely ceremonial except in rare situations (e.g., when no single party has a clear majority).

How the Prime Minister and Cabinet Take Major Decisions

1. Step 1: Party wins majority in Lok Sabha election — After general elections, the party or coalition with a majority in the Lok Sabha stakes claim to form the government.
2. Step 2: President appoints Prime Minister — The President invites the leader of the majority party/coalition to become Prime Minister, as per Article 75 of the Constitution.
3. Step 3: PM selects Council of Ministers — The PM allocates ranks and portfolios (departments) to elected representatives who become Cabinet, Minister of State, or Deputy Ministers.
4. Step 4: Cabinet deliberates on policy — The Cabinet, chaired by the PM, discusses and coordinates decisions across ministries — for example, deciding on infrastructure projects or budget allocations.
5. Step 5: Decision sent for approval and implementation — Once approved (sometimes routed through bodies like the Planning Commission or Finance Ministry), the decision is implemented by the permanent civil services machinery.

The Judiciary — Independence and Powers

India has an independent judiciary with a single integrated system: the Supreme Court at the top, High Courts at the state level, and District/subordinate courts below. Judicial independence means judges are not under the control of the government or legislature — this is ensured through a tough appointment process (mainly by senior judges, with limited role for the executive), difficulty in removing judges (only through impeachment by Parliament, and only for proven misbehaviour or incapacity), and a fixed, secure tenure.

The Supreme Court and High Courts have the power of judicial review — they can strike down any law passed by Parliament or an action of the executive if it violates the Constitution. They also protect Fundamental Rights of citizens by hearing cases and issuing writs, and act as guardians of the Constitution, settling disputes between citizens, between citizens and government, and between the Union and States (or between two states).

Common Mistakes CBSE Students Make

• Confusing the President (Head of State, nominal power) with the Prime Minister (Head of Government, real power) — always remember, the President acts on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers.
• Thinking Rajya Sabha has equal power to Lok Sabha — Rajya Sabha cannot vote on the budget/money bills and cannot remove the government through a no-confidence motion.
• Forgetting that Rajya Sabha is a permanent body and is never fully dissolved, unlike the Lok Sabha.
• Mixing up Political Executive (elected leaders) with Permanent Executive (civil servants) — civil servants remain in office regardless of change in government.
• Writing vague answers on 'why institutions matter' without mentioning the three key reasons: reducing arbitrariness, serving collective interest, and accommodating conflicting interests.
• Not mentioning judicial review or independence of judiciary while answering questions on the judiciary's role in a democracy.

Worked Examples — Applying the Concepts

• Example 1: Q: Why did the Kargil–Leh road decision take years despite the Prime Minister's directive? Step 1: The PM's order alone is not enough; it must pass through institutional channels. Step 2: The Finance Ministry and Planning Commission had to evaluate and approve the funding and feasibility. Step 3: Different institutions have their own procedures which take time, ensuring decisions aren't made arbitrarily. Final answer: The delay happened because institutions like the Finance Ministry and Planning Commission had to independently review and approve the project, showing that institutional processes control even the PM's directives, preventing one-person rule.
• Example 2: Q: A bill has been passed by the Lok Sabha but the Rajya Sabha rejects it. Will it become a law? Step 1: Recall that for an ordinary bill, both Houses must agree; if there's disagreement, a joint sitting of both Houses is called. Step 2: In a joint sitting, since Lok Sabha usually has more members, the bill is likely to pass if Lok Sabha strongly supports it. Step 3: However, for a Money Bill, Rajya Sabha's rejection does not matter — Lok Sabha's decision is final. Final answer: For an ordinary bill, a joint sitting decides; for a Money Bill, only Lok Sabha's approval is needed and Rajya Sabha cannot block it.
• Example 3: Q: The Supreme Court strikes down a law passed by Parliament, saying it violates Fundamental Rights. Explain the power being used and why it matters. Step 1: This power is called judicial review. Step 2: It means courts can examine whether a law/executive action matches the Constitution. Step 3: This protects citizens' Fundamental Rights and maintains the supremacy of the Constitution over any institution, including Parliament. Final answer: The Supreme Court is exercising judicial review, which upholds constitutional supremacy and protects citizens' rights from arbitrary laws.

CBSE Exam Tip

In board exams, questions on this chapter often ask you to 'distinguish' between two institutions (e.g., PM vs President, Lok Sabha vs Rajya Sabha). Always answer in a two-column comparison style mentally, covering at least 3 points of difference (election method, powers, tenure) — this fetches full marks even in a 3-mark question. Also memorise the exact three reasons institutions matter, as this is a favourite 'why do we need institutions' theory question worth 3-5 marks.

Practice Questions with Solutions

• Q: Why do we need Parliament? Explain any three functions of the Indian Parliament. A: Step 1: Parliament is the supreme representative body making laws for the country. Step 2: Function 1 - Parliament makes laws for the country and amends them when needed. Step 3: Function 2 - Parliament controls government finances by approving the budget and taxation. Step 4: Function 3 - Parliament controls, guides, and informs the government; it can remove the government through a no-confidence motion. Final answer: Parliament is needed to make laws, control finances, and control/oversee the government's functioning through discussion and votes.
• Q: Distinguish between the powers of the Prime Minister and the President of India. A: Step 1: The President is the nominal Head of State, holding formal/ceremonial powers. Step 2: The Prime Minister is the real Head of Government who actually exercises executive power. Step 3: The President appoints the PM (leader of the majority party) and other ministers only on the PM's advice. Step 4: All major government decisions are taken by the PM and Council of Ministers, and the President generally acts on their aid and advice. Final answer: The President has nominal/formal powers as Head of State, while the Prime Minister holds real executive power as Head of Government, running the country in consultation with the Council of Ministers.
• Q: What is judicial review? Why is an independent judiciary important for a democracy? A: Step 1: Judicial review is the power of the Supreme Court/High Courts to examine and strike down any law or executive action that violates the Constitution. Step 2: An independent judiciary means judges act without fear or pressure from the government or legislature. Step 3: Independence is ensured through a secure appointment process, difficulty in removal (impeachment only), and fixed tenure. Step 4: This independence lets courts protect Fundamental Rights and maintain constitutional supremacy even against powerful institutions like Parliament or the Executive. Final answer: Judicial review lets courts strike down unconstitutional laws/actions; independence of judiciary ensures fair, unbiased protection of rights and the Constitution, which is essential in a democracy.
• Q: Explain the difference between Political Executive and Permanent Executive with one example each. A: Step 1: The Political Executive consists of elected leaders responsible for making major policy decisions, e.g., the Prime Minister and Cabinet Ministers. Step 2: The Permanent Executive (civil services) consists of appointed officials who work regardless of which government is in power, e.g., IAS officers who implement policies. Step 3: Political Executive changes with elections, while Permanent Executive provides continuity and expertise. Final answer: Political Executive (like the PM) makes policy and changes with elections; Permanent Executive (like civil servants) implements policy and remains in service across governments.
• Q: Why is the Rajya Sabha not as powerful as the Lok Sabha even though both are Houses of Parliament? A: Step 1: Lok Sabha members are directly elected by the people, giving it more democratic legitimacy. Step 2: Only Lok Sabha can vote on Money Bills and the Union Budget; Rajya Sabha has very limited power here. Step 3: Only Lok Sabha can remove the government through a no-confidence motion. Step 4: Rajya Sabha mainly represents states and reviews/delays legislation but cannot block most decisions permanently. Final answer: Rajya Sabha has less power than Lok Sabha because it cannot control money bills or remove the government, even though it can debate and suggest changes to laws.

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