Pastoralists in the Modern World – Class 9 History Chapter 5

Understanding Pastoral Nomadism

Pastoral communities do not wander aimlessly; their movement follows a precise seasonal calendar based on climate, pasture availability, and water sources. This continuous movement is called transhumance — a rhythmic cycle between summer and winter grazing grounds. For instance, the Gujjar Bakarwals move to high mountain meadows (bugyals) in summer when snow melts and return to low hills in Jammu during winter when the mountains are snowbound. Similarly, the Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh spend winter in the low hills of Siwalik and summer in Lahul and Spiti. Pastoralists combine herding with agriculture, trade, and craft to survive; they often have long-term relationships with peasants, exchanging milk products and wool for grain and manufactured goods. This interdependence between pastoral and settled communities was crucial to the rural economy of pre-colonial India.

Key Pastoral Communities and Their Regions

Gujjar Bakarwals

Herders of goats and sheep from Jammu and Kashmir; move between winter pastures in the Siwalik hills and summer meadows (bugyals) in Kashmir valley.

Gaddi Shepherds

Pastoral community of Himachal Pradesh; spend winter in Siwalik hills and summer months in Lahul and Spiti with their flocks.

Dhangars

Important pastoral community of Maharashtra; stayed in central plateau (semi-arid) in monsoon and moved west to Konkan in winter.

Gollas, Kurumas, Kurubas

Cattle, sheep, and goat herders of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka who combined pastoralism with agriculture, weaving blankets during dry seasons.

Banjaras

Well-known trading-cum-grazing community found across Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh; moved long distances selling plough cattle and goods.

Raikas

Pastoralists of Rajasthan desert region; Maru (Marwar) Raikas herded camels, while others reared sheep and goats, adapting to rainfall patterns.

Maasai

East African pastoral community (Kenya and Tanzania) who lost their best grazing lands to colonial game reserves and white settler farms.

How Colonial Rule Transformed Pastoral Life

1. Step 1: Waste Land Rules (mid-19th century) — Colonial government took over uncultivated land, calling it 'waste land', and gave it to select individuals under grants for cultivation. These lands were actually grazing tracts, so pastoralists lost access to their traditional pastures.
2. Step 2: Forest Acts — Forests were classified as Reserved (no pastoralist access) or Protected (limited restricted access). Grazing in these areas was banned or heavily controlled, forcing herders to seek permits and follow fixed entry-exit timings, disrupting flexible seasonal movement.
3. Step 3: Criminal Tribes Act (1871) — Many pastoral and nomadic communities were classified as 'Criminal Tribes' — assumed to be inclined towards criminal activities by birth. They were confined to notified villages and needed passes to move, severely restricting their mobility.
4. Step 4: Grazing Tax — The colonial state imposed tax on every animal grazed on pastureland. Tax was collected via contractors who often overcharged herders to maximise their own profit, increasing the economic burden on pastoral families.
5. Step 5: Impact and Adaptation — With shrinking pastures and rising costs, many pastoralists reduced herd size, rented pastureland from richer peasants, combined pastoral work with other jobs, or borrowed money from moneylenders. Rich pastoralists bought land and settled, while poorer ones survived by adapting their traditional practices rather than disappearing entirely.

Pastoralism in India vs East Africa (Maasai)

Worked Examples: Analysing Pastoral Movement Patterns

• Example 1: Explain why the Raikas of Rajasthan move between summer and monsoon locations. Step 1: Rajasthan has scanty and unpredictable rainfall, so pasture in one place cannot sustain herds year-round. Step 2: During monsoon (July-Sept), Raikas stay in home villages where some grass grows locally. Step 3: In the dry season, they move to areas with wells and canal irrigation such as neighbouring Haryana where fodder is more assured. Step 4: This movement is a survival strategy that matches herd needs with available resources across seasons. Conclusion: Seasonal migration is not random wandering but a calculated ecological adaptation.
• Example 2: Why did the closing of forests under Forest Acts hurt pastoralists more than farmers? Step 1: Pastoralists depend on forests directly for grazing land and fodder during specific seasons of their annual cycle. Step 2: Reserved forests banned all pastoral access permanently, cutting off critical grazing grounds. Step 3: Protected forests allowed limited entry but only with permits specifying fixed days and numbers of cattle, disrupting flexible traditional movement. Step 4: Unlike settled farmers who cultivate fixed land, pastoralists' entire livelihood model depends on unrestricted mobility across multiple ecological zones. Conclusion: Forest Acts undermined the very foundation of the pastoral economy — free seasonal movement.
• Example 3: How did the Maasai lose two-thirds of their cattle in the late 19th century? Step 1: A severe famine struck East Africa in 1885, drastically reducing pasture and water availability. Step 2: This was compounded by an epidemic of rinderpest (cattle plague) that spread rapidly through Maasai herds. Step 3: With grazing lands already shrinking due to colonial appropriation, herds could not recover or find alternative pasture. Step 4: The combined effect of famine, disease, and land loss devastated the Maasai economy and reduced their population significantly. Conclusion: Natural calamity combined with colonial land policy created a compounding crisis for the Maasai.

Common Mistakes to Avoid in Exams

• Do not confuse 'Waste Land Rules' with actual barren/unused land — these were productive grazing pastures wrongly labelled as waste.
• Remember the difference between Reserved Forests (completely banned for pastoralists) and Protected Forests (limited restricted access) — students often mix these up.
• Do not write that pastoralism 'disappeared' after colonial rule — the chapter's key argument is that pastoralists adapted and survived through diverse strategies.
• Always mention specific community names (Gujjar Bakarwals, Gaddis, Dhangars, Raikas, Banjaras, Maasai) with their correct regions when asked for examples — generic answers lose marks.
• For Maasai-related questions, remember TWO causes for the 1885 crisis: famine AND cattle disease (rinderpest) — mentioning only one is an incomplete answer.
• Criminal Tribes Act (1871) is often confused with Forest Acts — clarify that CTA targeted community mobility/identity, while Forest Acts targeted land access.

Board Exam Tip: Answering 'Why' Questions

For CBSE board exams, 'why' or 'how' questions on this chapter carry 3-5 marks and need multi-point structured answers, not a single sentence. Always structure your answer as: (1) State the colonial law/policy, (2) explain what it specifically restricted, (3) describe the direct impact on pastoralists, and (4) mention how they adapted or resisted. This four-part structure ensures you cover analytical depth examiners look for. Also, use specific names of communities and Acts (e.g., 'Waste Land Rules of 1850s', 'Forest Act of 1878') to show precise NCERT knowledge rather than vague generalisations.

Practice Questions with Solutions

• Q: Explain the impact of the Forest Acts on pastoralist communities in colonial India. A: Step 1: The colonial government classified forests as Reserved (completely closed to pastoralists) and Protected (allowed limited grazing access with restrictions). Step 2: In Reserved Forests, pastoralists were denied entry altogether, cutting off traditional grazing grounds they had used for generations. Step 3: In Protected Forests, they needed permits specifying which days they could enter and exit, and how many cattle could graze, disrupting their natural seasonal rhythm. Step 4: Late arrivals or overstaying beyond permitted dates led to fines, harassment by forest guards, and financial loss. Final answer: The Forest Acts severely restricted pastoralist mobility and access to grazing land, forcing them to alter centuries-old migration patterns and often reduce herd sizes.
• Q: Who were the Maasai and how did colonial rule affect their pastoral economy? A: Step 1: The Maasai are a pastoral community from East Africa (present-day Kenya and Tanzania) who traditionally reared large cattle herds across vast grazing lands. Step 2: Colonial powers took over the best grazing lands for their own farms and converted large areas into game reserves like the Serengeti Park and Maasai Mara, which the Maasai could not enter. Step 3: The international boundary drawn between British Kenya and German Tanganyika in 1885 cut the Maasai grazing lands into two, restricting their movement across the border. Step 4: Combined with the 1885 famine and rinderpest cattle disease epidemic, the Maasai lost about two-thirds of their cattle, devastating their economy. Final answer: Colonial land seizure, borders, and natural disasters together crippled Maasai pastoral life, permanently shrinking their available grazing territory.
• Q: What was the Criminal Tribes Act of 1871 and how did it affect pastoral communities? A: Step 1: The colonial government passed the Criminal Tribes Act in 1871, classifying many pastoral, nomadic, and craft communities as 'Criminal Tribes'. Step 2: These communities were assumed to be criminals by birth, with a hereditary tendency towards crime, regardless of individual actions. Step 3: Once notified under this Act, they could only move around with a permit and were confined to living in specified village settlements under strict surveillance. Step 4: This severely limited their traditional seasonal mobility, which was essential to their pastoral livelihood. Final answer: The Criminal Tribes Act stigmatised and restricted pastoral communities' movement, treating their traditional lifestyle with suspicion and criminalising their mobility.
• Q: Describe the movement cycle of the Gujjar Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir. A: Step 1: The Gujjar Bakarwals are herders of goats and sheep who live in the Jammu and Kashmir region. Step 2: In winter, when the high mountains are covered in snow, they stay in the low hills of the Siwalik range with their herds. Step 3: As summer approaches and the snow melts, they move northward to the high mountain meadows called 'bugyals' where fresh pasture becomes available. Step 4: By September, as winter approaches again, they begin their return journey southward to their winter base before snow blocks the mountain passes. Final answer: The Gujjar Bakarwals follow a fixed annual transhumance cycle between winter lowland pastures and summer highland meadows, precisely timed with seasonal snow melt and pasture growth.
• Q: How did pastoralists cope with the changes brought by colonial policies? Give three strategies. A: Step 1: Some richer pastoralists bought land and settled down, giving up their nomadic life to become settled peasant farmers or landowners. Step 2: Poorer pastoralists often had to borrow money from moneylenders to survive lean periods, sometimes losing their herds and becoming labourers or artisans instead. Step 3: Many pastoralists reduced the number of cattle they kept since large herds could not be sustained on the shrinking pastureland available to them. Step 4: Some communities found new grazing grounds by negotiating temporary access to fields after harvest (when pastures were rented from farmers) and adjusted their movement routes strategically. Final answer: Pastoralists adapted through diverse strategies — settling as farmers, reducing herd size, borrowing money, and finding new pasture arrangements — showing resilience rather than disappearance under colonial pressure.

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