CBSE Class 11 Political Science Notes — Election and Representation

Class 11 Political Science notes on Election and Representation: FPTP vs PR, reserved seats, Election Commission, universal franchise and electoral reforms.

Chapter Summary

This chapter explains why a large democracy relies on elected representatives and why the rules of elections are written into the Constitution. It compares First Past the Post with Proportional Representation, explains why India chose FPTP, covers reserved constituencies, universal adult franchise, the Election Commission under Article 324, and the main proposals for electoral reform. Written for CBSE Class 11 Political Science revision.

Key Concepts

Why Elections Matter in a Democracy

Think of any game you play. Before the first ball is bowled, everyone must agree on the rules and on who the umpire will be. Elections work the same way. The rules of the contest and the authority that supervises it cannot be left to whichever government happens to be in power, which is why a democratic constitution lays them down in advance.

The chapter begins with two questions. Can there be democracy without elections? In a country of crores of people, hardly. Direct democracy, where citizens take part in every decision, was possible in the small city-states of ancient Greece, and gram sabhas come close to it today. But a large country has to rely on representative democracy, where people choose representatives who govern on their behalf. Elections therefore become the most visible symbol of democracy.

The second question is whether elections can exist without democracy. They can. Many non-democratic rulers hold elections arranged so that their rule is never threatened. What separates a democratic election from a sham one is a set of basic rules: who can vote, who can contest, who supervises the process, how voters choose and how votes are converted into seats. The first three aim at free and fair elections; the last two aim at fair representation. Details are left to ordinary laws passed by the legislature, but these core rules sit in the Constitution.

Key Points

Examples

First Past the Post (FPTP) System

India divides the country into constituencies, with 543 for the Lok Sabha. Each constituency elects exactly one representative, and the candidate who gets more votes than every other candidate is declared the winner. The winner need not cross 50 per cent. Coming first is enough, and that is why the system is called First Past the Post, or the Plurality System. The Constitution prescribes this method for Lok Sabha and Assembly elections.

The chapter uses the 1984 Lok Sabha election to show how the rule shapes results. The Congress won 415 of 543 seats, over 80 per cent, with only about 48 per cent of the votes. The BJP won around 7.4 per cent of the votes but just two seats. This happens because when many candidates compete, a winner can emerge with a modest vote share, and every vote cast for the losing candidates produces no seat for those parties.

In theory, a party that gets 25 per cent of the votes in every constituency, while all rivals get less, could win every seat. So FPTP tends to exaggerate the strength of the largest party and can leave smaller parties badly under-represented relative to their vote share.

Key Points

Examples

Proportional Representation (PR) System

Proportional Representation follows a very different logic. Every party receives a share of seats in the legislature that matches its share of votes. If a party gets 20 per cent of the national vote, it gets roughly 20 per cent of the seats.

In PR systems voters usually choose a party rather than an individual. Before the election each party publishes a list of candidates, and after counting, it fills the seats it has earned by picking names from that list. Israel is the standard example. Its Knesset is elected every four years and the whole country acts as one constituency. Parties need a minimum of 3.25 per cent of the vote to enter, which still lets small parties win seats. The result is usually a multi-party coalition government.

There are two broad variants. In one, such as Israel or the Netherlands, the entire country is a single constituency. In the other, as in Argentina and Portugal, the country is split into multi-member constituencies and each party submits a list for each of them, so a single constituency sends members of different parties to the legislature.

India uses PR only for certain indirect elections. A third, more complex variant is prescribed for choosing the President, Vice President, Rajya Sabha members and members of the Vidhan Parishads.

Key Points

Examples

FPTP versus PR and the Rajya Sabha Method

The two systems differ in almost every feature. FPTP uses small geographical constituencies that elect one member each, and voters choose a candidate. PR uses larger areas, possibly the whole country, that may elect several members, and voters choose a party. Under FPTP a party can win a bigger share of seats than of votes; under PR the shares remain close. The United Kingdom and India follow FPTP, while Israel and the Netherlands follow PR.

The Rajya Sabha shows a different variant called the Single Transferable Vote. Each State has a fixed quota of Rajya Sabha seats, and the voters are the State's MLAs, who rank candidates in order of preference. To win, a candidate must reach a quota worked out as total votes polled divided by (seats to be filled plus one), plus one. With 200 MLAs in Rajasthan electing four members, the quota is 200 divided by 5, plus 1, which equals 41 votes.

First preferences are counted first. If not enough candidates reach the quota, the candidate with the fewest first preferences is eliminated and those ballots move to the next preference marked on them. The process repeats until all seats are filled. This ranking method is workable for a small electorate of legislators but would be very complicated for crores of ordinary voters.

Key Points

Examples

Why India Adopted FPTP

The framers of the Constitution had several practical reasons for choosing FPTP over PR.

First, simplicity. Even a voter with no knowledge of politics can understand how the winner is picked. Second, FPTP gives a clear choice not only between parties but between specific candidates, and the voter knows exactly who their own representative is and whom to hold accountable. Under PR, since seats go to party lists, no single person is answerable for a locality.

Third, stability. India adopted the parliamentary system, which requires the executive to enjoy a majority in the legislature. PR splits seats according to votes and may not produce a clear majority, while FPTP usually gives the largest party or coalition bonus seats, helping the formation of a stable government.

Fourth, FPTP pushes different social groups to come together to win a locality. In a diverse country, PR could encourage each community to form its own nationwide party.

Experience has largely supported these expectations. FPTP generally favours a two-party system, but India differs. After independence, one party dominated while many small parties existed. Since 1989, coalitions have been common, and in many States two-party competition is emerging. The rise of coalitions has allowed smaller and new parties to compete despite FPTP.

Key Points

Examples

Reservation of Constituencies

Under FPTP the candidate with the most votes wins, which can work against small or disadvantaged groups. In a society with a history of caste discrimination, dominant groups may win everywhere while oppressed groups go unrepresented. The Constitution makers wanted to prevent this.

Before independence, the British had introduced separate electorates, meaning only voters of a community could elect that community's representative. Many members of the Constituent Assembly feared this would divide society, so they chose reserved constituencies instead. In a reserved constituency all voters can vote, but only candidates from the specified community can contest.

The Constitution reserves seats in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in proportion to their population. The provision was first meant for ten years and has been extended by amendments up to 2030. Of the 543 elected Lok Sabha seats, 84 are reserved for SC and 47 for ST as on 26 January 2019.

The Delimitation Commission, appointed by the President and working with the Election Commission, draws constituency boundaries and decides which seats are reserved. ST seats go to constituencies with the highest ST population; SC seats are chosen by population share but spread across the State, and reserved seats can be rotated at each delimitation.

Reservation for women was long demanded for Parliament and State Assemblies. It already exists in local bodies, and the Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam (Women's Reservation Act, 2023) extends it to Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabhas.

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Universal Adult Franchise and the Right to Contest

Apart from fixing the method of elections, the Constitution answers who may vote and who may stand. Its answer to the first is universal adult franchise: every adult citizen has the right to vote. In many countries citizens, and especially women, had to struggle for decades to win this right. India's framers granted it from the start, reflecting their faith that all adults are equal in deciding what is good for the country, regardless of education or wealth.

The voting age was 21 until a 1989 constitutional amendment reduced it to 18.

The right to contest is also open to all citizens, but with some conditions. A candidate for the Lok Sabha or a State Assembly must be at least 25 years old. A person who has been imprisoned for two or more years for an offence is disqualified from contesting. However, there are no restrictions based on income, education, class or gender. This makes the electoral process open to all citizens in principle.

The idea behind both rights is political equality. A person's say in choosing the government should not depend on social standing. This ties in with the principles of equality studied in the chapter on rights. Critics have argued that illiterate voters may not choose wisely, but the Constitution makers trusted ordinary citizens and chose not to place educational qualifications on voting.

Key Points

Examples

The Election Commission of India

To make elections free and fair, the Constitution creates an independent Election Commission. Article 324 gives it the superintendence, direction and control of the preparation of electoral rolls and the conduct of elections to Parliament, State Legislatures and the offices of President and Vice President. Local body elections are handled by separate State Election Commissioners. A Chief Electoral Officer in each State assists the Commission.

The Commission has been single-member and multi-member at different times. It became permanently multi-member in 1993. The Chief Election Commissioner presides but has no greater powers than the other Election Commissioners, and decisions are taken collectively. They are appointed by the President on the advice of the Council of Ministers, which raises worries about partisan appointments; one suggestion is to consult the Leader of the Opposition and the Chief Justice of India. The tenure is six years or until age 65, whichever is earlier, and the CEC can be removed only through a special majority of both Houses.

Its functions include preparing and updating voters' lists, announcing the election schedule, implementing the model code of conduct, ordering re-polls or recounts, postponing or cancelling elections when the atmosphere is vitiated, and recognising parties and allotting symbols. During elections it has full control over the officials assigned to election duty. Examples include postponing polling in 1991 after Rajiv Gandhi's assassination and delaying Gujarat's 2002 Assembly election due to violence.

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Examples

Electoral Reforms and the Success of the System

No electoral system is perfect, and over seven decades India has seen several proposals for reform. These include changing from FPTP to some variant of PR so that parties get seats in proportion to votes; ensuring at least one-third women in Parliament and Assemblies; stricter control on money in elections, possibly with government funding of expenses; barring candidates with criminal cases even when appeals are pending; banning caste and religious appeals in campaigns; and a law to make political parties function transparently and democratically.

There is no consensus on these ideas, and laws alone have limits. Free and fair elections ultimately depend on candidates, parties and officials respecting the spirit of democratic competition. Citizens must stay vigilant, and institutions and voluntary organisations should act as watchdogs.

The chapter ends by pointing to the strengths of India's system. Voters can freely choose and peacefully change governments at both State and national levels. Participation is keen, and the number of candidates and parties keeps increasing. The system has become more inclusive, so representatives now come from many social sections, although women remain under-represented. Results are rarely decided by malpractice or rigging, even though attempts occur. Finally, no one imagines a government without elections or defying the verdict of the voters. This regularity has earned India respect as a great democratic experiment.

Key Points

Examples

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the First Past the Post (FPTP) system?

In the FPTP system the country is divided into single-member constituencies, and the candidate who gets more votes than all other candidates is declared elected, even without a majority. It is also called the Plurality System. The Constitution prescribes it for Lok Sabha and State Assembly elections in India.

What is Proportional Representation? Give two variants.

In Proportional Representation each party gets a share of legislative seats equal to its share of votes, and voters choose a party rather than a candidate. In one variant the entire country is a single constituency, as in Israel and the Netherlands. In another, multi-member constituencies are used, as in Argentina and Portugal.

Distinguish between FPTP and Proportional Representation.

Under FPTP, small constituencies elect one representative each and voters vote for a candidate; a party may win more seats than its vote share. Under PR, larger constituencies elect several members, voters vote for a party, and seats follow vote share. India and the UK follow FPTP; Israel and the Netherlands follow PR.

Why did India adopt the FPTP system? Discuss.

FPTP is simple for ordinary voters and gives a clear choice of candidates. Voters know their own representative and can hold that person accountable. It tends to produce stable majorities, which suit the parliamentary system, and it pushes different social groups to cooperate in a locality instead of forming community-based parties. Experience has largely supported these expectations.

How are Rajya Sabha members elected?

Rajya Sabha members are elected by the MLAs of a State through the Single Transferable Vote, a variant of PR. Each MLA ranks candidates by preference. A candidate needs a quota, calculated as total votes divided by seats plus one, plus one. Lowest candidates are eliminated and their votes transferred to the next preference.

What is the difference between reserved constituencies and separate electorates? Why were separate electorates rejected?

In separate electorates, only members of a community could vote for that community's representative. In reserved constituencies, all voters take part but candidates must belong to the reserved group. The Constituent Assembly feared separate electorates would divide the nation, so reserved constituencies were adopted for SC and ST.

What is the role of the Delimitation Commission?

The Delimitation Commission is an independent body appointed by the President that works with the Election Commission. It draws constituency boundaries across the country and decides which constituencies will be reserved for SC and ST, based on their population proportions in each State. Reserved seats can be rotated at each delimitation.

Explain the composition, tenure and independence of the Election Commission of India.

The Commission is multi-member, headed by the Chief Election Commissioner, with all members having equal powers. They are appointed by the President on the advice of the Council of Ministers for six years or until age 65, whichever is earlier. The CEC can be removed only by a special majority in both Houses, which protects independence.

List the main functions of the Election Commission of India.

The Election Commission prepares and updates electoral rolls, announces the election schedule, enforces the model code of conduct, and controls the officials on election duty. It may order a re-poll or recount, and postpone or cancel elections if the atmosphere is vitiated. It also recognises political parties and allots symbols.

Discuss any four suggestions for electoral reform in India.

Suggested reforms include shifting from FPTP to a form of PR so seats match votes; ensuring at least one-third women in legislatures; tighter control of money in elections, perhaps with state funding; barring candidates with criminal cases and banning caste and religious appeals. A law regulating transparent functioning of parties is also proposed.

CBSE Class 11 Political Science Notes — Election and Representation